Interleukins are low molecular weight proteins that bind to cell surface receptors and act in an autocrine and/or paracrine fashion. They were first identified as factors produced by leukocytes but are now known to be produced by many other cells throughout the body. They have pleiotropic effects on cells which bind them, impacting processes such as tissue growth and repair, hematopoietic homeostasis, and multiple levels of the host defense against pathogens where they are an essential part of the immune system.
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IL-32 has properties of a typical pro-inflammatory mediator, stimulating TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-8 production, and activating the NF-kappaB and p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathways. It is produced mainly by T, natural killer, epithelial and monocyte cells after stimulation by Interleukin-2, Interleukin-18 or IFN-gamma (Kim et al. 2005). IL-32 can bind proteinase 3, a neutrophil-derived serine protease, but its (assumed) receptor is unknown.
interleukin-34 (IL34) was identified as a potent activator of monocytes and macrophages, signaling through Colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF1) receptor (CSF1R) with a distinct tissue distribution from CSF1 (Lin et al. 2008). IL34 and CSF1 share many functional properties. IL34 has no appreciable sequence similarity with any other protein but shares a four-helix bundle structure seen in CSF1 (Garceau et al. 2010, Liu et al. 2012). IL34 forms a noncovalently linked dimer (Ma et al. 2012) whereas CSF1 contains an intersubunit disulfide bond. The structure of the IL34:CSF1R complex shows a similar ligand-receptor assembly to that of CSF1:CSF1R.
Interferon lambda-1 (IFNL1) binds Interleukin-10 receptor subunit beta (IL10RB), which is associated with Non-receptor tyrosine-protein kinase TYK2 (TYK2), and Interferon lambda receptor-1 (IFNLR1), which is associated with Tyrosine-protein kinase JAK1 (JAK1). Interferon lambda-2 (IFNL2, IL28A), Interleukin-28B (IL28B, Interferon lambda-3) and Interferon lambda-1 (IFNL1, Interleukin-29) are related cytokines, collectively known as the type III interferons. They are distantly related to the type I interferons (IFNs) and are members of the class II cytokine family, which includes type I, II, and III interferons and the Interleukin-10 family (IL10, Interleukin-19 (IL19), Interleukin-20 (IL20), Interleukin-22 (IL22), Interleukin-24 (IL24), and Interleukin-26 (IL26)). They are encoded by genes that form a cluster on 19q13. Expression of all three IFNLs can be induced by viral infection. They share a heterodimeric class II cytokine receptor that consists of IFNLR1 and interleukin-10 receptor beta (IL10RB) (Kotenko et al. 2003, Sheppard et al. 2003). IL10RB is also part of the receptor complexes for IL10, IL22, IL24 and IL26. IFNL1, IFNL2 and IFNL3, like type I IFNs, can signal through ISRE regulatory sites and are likely to provide antiviral activity by the induction of at least a subset of IFN-stimulated genes (Dumoutier et al. 2004, Gad et al 2004, Sheppard et al. 2003).
The mature and biologically active secreted interleukin-16 (IL16) is a 13-kDa carboxy terminal peptide derived from a larger intracellular precursor protein. Cleavage of IL16 from the propeptide is mediated by caspase-3. IL16 is a chemoattractant for a variety of cell types that express the cell surface antigen CD4.
Interleukin-16 (IL16) does not contain a consensus secretory leader sequence, and the mechanism for its release has not been elucidated. Amino-terminal deletions of IL16 reduce its capacity for secretion (Zhou et al. 1999), but the significance of this is unclear.
CD4 is a receptor for Interleukin-16 (IL16), explaining how IL16 acts as a chemoattractant for a variety of CD4+ immune cells (Cruikshank et al. 2000, Cruikshank & Little 2008).
Signaling mediated by CD4 requires the amino acid sequence W345 to S350, located in the proximal end of the D4 domain. CD4 does not appear to require a co-receptor for IL16. Data from CD4 knockout mice suggests that there may be an additional IL16 receptor (Mathy et al. 2000).
Interleukin-14, renamed alpha-taxilin (TXLNA) was originally described as High molecular weight B-cell growth factor (Ambrus et al. 1994). TXLNA binds several forms of syntaxin (Nogami et al. 2003), but not when they are complexed with SNAP25, VAMP2 or STXBP1, suggesting that TXLNA interacts with syntaxins outside the SNARE complex. This observation and a predicted role in intracellular vesicle trafficking led to renaming of the gene. Txlna transgenic mice show a phenotype similar to systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjogren's syndrome (Shen et al. 2006).
FLT3 is a member of the Class III Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Family, which also includes FMS, KIT, PDGFRA and PDGFRB. It binds the cytokine FLT3LG (Hannum et al. 1994), which regulates differentiation, proliferation and survival of hematopoietic progenitor cells and dendritic cells.
FLT3LG is probably dimeric. Binding to monomeric FLT3 induces receptor dimerization (Verstraete et al. 2011, Grafone et al. 2012), which promotes phosphorylation of the tyrosine kinase domain, activating the receptor and consequently the downstream effectors. Early studies of FLT3 using a chimeric receptor composed of the extracellular domain of human FMS and the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of FLT3 demonstrated the activation of PLCG1, RASA1, SHC, GRB2, VAV, FYN, and SRC pathways. PLCG1, SHC, GRB2, and FYN were found to directly associate with the cytoplasmic domain of FLT3 (Dosil et al. 1993). Later studes using the full-length human receptor identified that FLT3LG binding to FLT3 leads to FLT3 autophosphorylation, association of FLT3 with GRB2, tyrosine phosphorylation of SHC and CBL, formation of a complex that includes CBL, the p85 subunit of PI3K and GAB2, and tyrosine phosphorylation of GAB1 and GAB2 and their association with PTPN11 (SHP-2) and GRB2. PTPN11 (SHP-2), but not PTPN6 (SHP-1) binds GRB2 directly and becomes tyrosine-phosphorylated in response to FLT3LG stimulation. INPP5D (SHIP) also becomes tyrosine-phosphorylated after FLT3LG stimulation but binds to SHC. GAB1 and GAB2 are rapidly tyrosine phosphorylated after FLT3LG stimulation of cells, interacting with tyrosine-phosphorylated PTPN11, p85 subunit of PI3K, GRB2, and SHC (Zhang & Broxmeyer 2000). GAB may mediate the downstream activation of PTPN11, PI3K and thereby PDK1 and AKt which activate the mTOR pathway (Grafone et al. 2012), and possibly the Ras/Raf/MAPK pathway. (Zhang et al. 1999, Marchetto et al. 1999, Zhang e& Broxmeyer 2000). Activation of FLT3 leads to limited activation of STAT5A via a JAK-independent mechanism (Zhang et al. 2000).
FLT3 is mutated in about 1/3 of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients, either by internal tandem duplications (ITD) of the juxtamembrane domain or by point mutations usually involving the kinase domain (KD). Both types of mutation constitutively activate FLT3 (Small 2006).
The granulocyte colony-stimulating factor receptor (CSF3R, GCSFR, CD114) is a cell-surface receptor for the granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (CSF3, GCSF) (Larsen et al. 1990, Panapoulos & Watowich 2008). It is present on precursor cells in the bone marrow. CSF3 initiates cell proliferation and differentiation into mature neutrophilic granulocytes and macrophages.
CSF3 exists as a dimer and higher order oligomeric structures; only the dimer exhibits high affinity binding (Hiraoka & Anaguchi et al. 1994). CSF3R ligand-binding is associated with dimerization of the receptor (Aritomi et al. 1999, Tamada et al. 2006, Layton & Hall 2006) and signal transduction through Jak/STAT, Lyn and Erk1/2. Mutations in CSF3R are a cause of Kostmann syndrome, also known as severe congenital neutropenia (Zeidler & Welte 2002, Vandenberghe & Beel 2011).
The receptor for Interleukin-34 (IL34) is colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), also called macrophage colony stimulating factor receptor (M-CSF-R). Dimeric IL34 and CSF1 bind the same general region of CSF1R, interacting with overlapping but distinct epitopes. Ligand binding leads to receptor dimerisation (Ma et al. 2012, Liu et al. 2012). Like CSF1, IL34 stimulation of CSF1R leads to phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1 and 2 in human monocytes (Lin et al. 2008).
CSF1R activates several signaling pathways including JAK-STAT3, 5A/B, phosphorylation of PIK3R1, PLCG2, GRB2, SLA2 and CBL. PLCG2 phosphorylation leads to increassed production of the cellular signaling molecules diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5 trisphosphate (IP3), which activate protein kinase C family members, especially PRKCD. Phosphorylation of PIK3R1, the regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase, leads to activation of the AKT1 signaling pathway. Activated CSF1R also mediates activation of MAPK1 (ERK2) or MAPK3 (ERK1) and the SRC family kinases SRC, FYN and YES1. Activated CSF1R binds GRB2 and promotes tyrosine phosphorylation of SHC1 and INPP5D (SHIP1). Signaling is down regulated by protein phosphatases such as INPP5D that can dephosphorylate the receptor and its downstream effectors.
CSF3R ligand-binding is associated with dimerization of the receptor (Aritomi et al. 1999, Tamada et al. 2006, Layton & Hall 2006) and signal transduction through Jak/STAT, Lyn and Erk1/2.
Interleukin-34 (IL34) signals via the Colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF1R). It can also bind Receptor-type protein-tyrosine phosphatase zeta (PTPRZ1), a cell surface chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycan. PTPRZ1 is primarily expressed on neural progenitor and glial cells. IL34 selectively bound PTPRZ1 in CSF1R-deficient U251 human glioblastoma cell lysates, inhibiting proliferation, clonogenicity and motility, and promoting an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase 1 (PTK2) and paxillin (PXN) (Nandii et al. 2013).
Interleukin-34 (IL34) can bind Macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF1). The IL34:CSF1 heteromer may bind Macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) facilitating receptor maturation and cellular trafficking. Consequently, downstream signaling pathways are activated (Segaliny et al. 2015). Ultimately, these events lead to the release of pro-inflammatory chemokines regulating the innate immunity and inflammation. The exact binding mechanism of IL34:CSF1 to CSF1R is unclear. Hence, this interaction is represented as a black box event.
Interleukin-34 (IL34) can bind Macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) to form a heteromer, which subsequently binds CSF1R (Segaliny et al. 2015).
Interleukin-34 (IL34) can bind Syndecan-1 (SDC1), a cell surface proteoglycan. Low levels of SDC1 may sequester IL34 at the cell surface and prevent it from binding Macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), while high SDC1 levels may facilitate IL34-CSF1R signaling (Segaliny et al. 2015). Ultimately, these events lead to the release of pro-inflammatory chemokines regulating the innate immunity and inflammation. The precise interaction between IL34:SDC1 and CSF1R is unknown. Hence, this interaction is represented as an uncertain black box event.
Interleukin-34 (IL34) is involved in the survival, proliferation and differentiation of monocytes and macrophages. Syndecan-1 (SDC1) is a cell surface proteoglycan that contains the chondroitin sulphate and primarily functions to link the cytoskeleton to the interstitial matrix. IL34 dimers can bind to the chondroitin sulphate of SDC1. Subsequently, SDC1 modulates IL34-induced CSF1R signaling pathways (Segaliny et al. 2015). Ultimately, these events lead to the release of pro-inflammatory chemokines regulating the innate immunity and inflammation.
Interleukin-14, renamed alpha-taxilin (TXLNA) was originally described as High molecular weight B-cell growth factor (Ambrus et al. 1994). TXLNA binds several forms of syntaxin (Nogami et al. 2003), but not when they are complexed with SNAP25, VAMP2 or STXBP1, suggesting that TXLNA interacts with syntaxins outside the SNARE complex. This observation and a predicted role in intracellular vesicle trafficking led to renaming of the gene. Txlna transgenic mice show a phenotype similar to systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjogren's syndrome (Shen et al. 2006).
Interleukin-14, renamed alpha-taxilin (TXLNA) was originally described as High molecular weight B-cell growth factor (Ambrus et al. 1994). TXLNA binds several forms of syntaxin (Nogami et al. 2003), but not when they are complexed with SNAP25, VAMP2 or STXBP1, suggesting that TXLNA interacts with syntaxins outside the SNARE complex. This observation and a predicted role in intracellular vesicle trafficking led to renaming of the gene. Txlna transgenic mice show a phenotype similar to systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjogren's syndrome (Shen et al. 2006).
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FLT3LG is probably dimeric. Binding to monomeric FLT3 induces receptor dimerization (Verstraete et al. 2011, Grafone et al. 2012), which promotes phosphorylation of the tyrosine kinase domain, activating the receptor and consequently the downstream effectors. Early studies of FLT3 using a chimeric receptor composed of the extracellular domain of human FMS and the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of FLT3 demonstrated the activation of PLCG1, RASA1, SHC, GRB2, VAV, FYN, and SRC pathways. PLCG1, SHC, GRB2, and FYN were found to directly associate with the cytoplasmic domain of FLT3 (Dosil et al. 1993). Later studes using the full-length human receptor identified that FLT3LG binding to FLT3 leads to FLT3 autophosphorylation, association of FLT3 with GRB2, tyrosine phosphorylation of SHC and CBL, formation of a complex that includes CBL, the p85 subunit of PI3K and GAB2, and tyrosine phosphorylation of GAB1 and GAB2 and their association with PTPN11 (SHP-2) and GRB2. PTPN11 (SHP-2), but not PTPN6 (SHP-1) binds GRB2 directly and becomes tyrosine-phosphorylated in response to FLT3LG stimulation. INPP5D (SHIP) also becomes tyrosine-phosphorylated after FLT3LG stimulation but binds to SHC. GAB1 and GAB2 are rapidly tyrosine phosphorylated after FLT3LG stimulation of cells, interacting with tyrosine-phosphorylated PTPN11, p85 subunit of PI3K, GRB2, and SHC (Zhang & Broxmeyer 2000). GAB may mediate the downstream activation of PTPN11, PI3K and thereby PDK1 and AKt which activate the mTOR pathway (Grafone et al. 2012), and possibly the Ras/Raf/MAPK pathway. (Zhang et al. 1999, Marchetto et al. 1999, Zhang e& Broxmeyer 2000). Activation of FLT3 leads to limited activation of STAT5A via a JAK-independent mechanism (Zhang et al. 2000).
FLT3 is mutated in about 1/3 of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients, either by internal tandem duplications (ITD) of the juxtamembrane domain or by point mutations usually involving the kinase domain (KD). Both types of mutation constitutively activate FLT3 (Small 2006).