DNA synthesis occurs in the S phase, or the synthesis phase, of the cell cycle. The cell duplicates its hereditary material, and two copies of the chromosome are formed. As DNA replication continues, the E type cyclins shared by the G1 and S phases, are destroyed and the levels of the mitotic cyclins rise.
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Diehl JA, Sherr CJ.; ''A dominant-negative cyclin D1 mutant prevents nuclear import of cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) and its phosphorylation by CDK-activating kinase.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Nishiyama T, Ladurner R, Schmitz J, Kreidl E, Kreidl E, Schleiffer A, Bhaskara V, Bando M, Shirahige K, Hyman AA, Mechtler K, Peters JM.; ''Sororin mediates sister chromatid cohesion by antagonizing Wapl.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Vega H, Waisfisz Q, Gordillo M, Sakai N, Yanagihara I, Yamada M, van Gosliga D, Kayserili H, Xu C, Ozono K, Jabs EW, Inui K, Joenje H.; ''Roberts syndrome is caused by mutations in ESCO2, a human homolog of yeast ECO1 that is essential for the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Litovchick L, Sadasivam S, Florens L, Zhu X, Swanson SK, Velmurugan S, Chen R, Washburn MP, Liu XS, DeCaprio JA.; ''Evolutionarily conserved multisubunit RBL2/p130 and E2F4 protein complex represses human cell cycle-dependent genes in quiescence.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Montagnoli A, Fiore F, Eytan E, Carrano AC, Draetta GF, Hershko A, Pagano M.; ''Ubiquitination of p27 is regulated by Cdk-dependent phosphorylation and trimeric complex formation.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Voges D, Zwickl P, Baumeister W.; ''The 26S proteasome: a molecular machine designed for controlled proteolysis.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Diehl JA, Zindy F, Sherr CJ.; ''Inhibition of cyclin D1 phosphorylation on threonine-286 prevents its rapid degradation via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Aprelikova O, Xiong Y, Liu ET.; ''Both p16 and p21 families of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors block the phosphorylation of cyclin-dependent kinases by the CDK-activating kinase.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Gu Y, Rosenblatt J, Morgan DO.; ''Cell cycle regulation of CDK2 activity by phosphorylation of Thr160 and Tyr15.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Wu CL, Kirley SD, Xiao H, Chuang Y, Chung DC, Zukerberg LR.; ''Cables enhances cdk2 tyrosine 15 phosphorylation by Wee1, inhibits cell growth, and is lost in many human colon and squamous cancers.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Zhang J, Shi X, Li Y, Kim BJ, Jia J, Huang Z, Yang T, Fu X, Jung SY, Wang Y, Zhang P, Kim ST, Pan X, Qin J.; ''Acetylation of Smc3 by Eco1 is required for S phase sister chromatid cohesion in both human and yeast.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Benzeno S, Lu F, Guo M, Barbash O, Zhang F, Herman JG, Klein PS, Rustgi A, Diehl JA.; ''Identification of mutations that disrupt phosphorylation-dependent nuclear export of cyclin D1.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Orend G, Hunter T, Ruoslahti E.; ''Cytoplasmic displacement of cyclin E-cdk2 inhibitors p21Cip1 and p27Kip1 in anchorage-independent cells.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Van Den Berg DJ, Francke U.; ''Roberts syndrome: a review of 100 cases and a new rating system for severity.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Wei SJ, Williams JG, Dang H, Darden TA, Betz BL, Humble MM, Chang FM, Trempus CS, Johnson K, Cannon RE, Tennant RW.; ''Identification of a specific motif of the DSS1 protein required for proteasome interaction and p53 protein degradation.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Deardorff MA, Bando M, Nakato R, Watrin E, Itoh T, Minamino M, Saitoh K, Komata M, Katou Y, Clark D, Cole KE, De Baere E, Decroos C, Di Donato N, Ernst S, Francey LJ, Gyftodimou Y, Hirashima K, Hullings M, Ishikawa Y, Jaulin C, Kaur M, Kiyono T, Lombardi PM, Magnaghi-Jaulin L, Mortier GR, Nozaki N, Petersen MB, Seimiya H, Siu VM, Suzuki Y, Takagaki K, Wilde JJ, Willems PJ, Prigent C, Gillessen-Kaesbach G, Christianson DW, Kaiser FJ, Jackson LG, Hirota T, Krantz ID, Shirahige K.; ''HDAC8 mutations in Cornelia de Lange syndrome affect the cohesin acetylation cycle.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Xiang B, Chatti K, Qiu H, Lakshmi B, Krasnitz A, Hicks J, Yu M, Miller WT, Muthuswamy SK.; ''Brk is coamplified with ErbB2 to promote proliferation in breast cancer.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Blomberg I, Hoffmann I.; ''Ectopic expression of Cdc25A accelerates the G(1)/S transition and leads to premature activation of cyclin E- and cyclin A-dependent kinases.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Bornstein G, Bloom J, Sitry-Shevah D, Nakayama K, Pagano M, Hershko A.; ''Role of the SCFSkp2 ubiquitin ligase in the degradation of p21Cip1 in S phase.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Bembenek J, Yu H.; ''Regulation of the anaphase-promoting complex by the dual specificity phosphatase human Cdc14a.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Harper JW, Adami GR, Wei N, Keyomarsi K, Elledge SJ.; ''The p21 Cdk-interacting protein Cip1 is a potent inhibitor of G1 cyclin-dependent kinases.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Gordillo M, Vega H, Trainer AH, Hou F, Sakai N, Luque R, Kayserili H, Basaran S, Skovby F, Hennekam RC, Uzielli ML, Schnur RE, Manouvrier S, Chang S, Blair E, Hurst JA, Forzano F, Meins M, Simola KO, Raas-Rothschild A, Schultz RA, McDaniel LD, Ozono K, Inui K, Zou H, Jabs EW.; ''The molecular mechanism underlying Roberts syndrome involves loss of ESCO2 acetyltransferase activity.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Zhou BP, Liao Y, Xia W, Spohn B, Lee MH, Hung MC.; ''Cytoplasmic localization of p21Cip1/WAF1 by Akt-induced phosphorylation in HER-2/neu-overexpressing cells.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Pagano M, Pepperkok R, Verde F, Ansorge W, Draetta G.; ''Cyclin A is required at two points in the human cell cycle.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Tsvetkov LM, Yeh KH, Lee SJ, Sun H, Zhang H.; ''p27(Kip1) ubiquitination and degradation is regulated by the SCF(Skp2) complex through phosphorylated Thr187 in p27.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Whelan G, Kreidl E, Kreidl E, Wutz G, Egner A, Peters JM, Eichele G.; ''Cohesin acetyltransferase Esco2 is a cell viability factor and is required for cohesion in pericentric heterochromatin.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Ganoth D, Bornstein G, Ko TK, Larsen B, Tyers M, Pagano M, Hershko A.; ''The cell-cycle regulatory protein Cks1 is required for SCF(Skp2)-mediated ubiquitinylation of p27.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Zhu XH, Nguyen H, Halicka HD, Traganos F, Koff A.; ''Noncatalytic requirement for cyclin A-cdk2 in p27 turnover.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
DeGregori J, Kowalik T, Nevins JR.; ''Cellular targets for activation by the E2F1 transcription factor include DNA synthesis- and G1/S-regulatory genes.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Jackman M, Kubota Y, den Elzen N, Hagting A, Pines J.; ''Cyclin A- and cyclin E-Cdk complexes shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Guo Y, Yang K, Harwalkar J, Nye JM, Mason DR, Garrett MD, Hitomi M, Stacey DW.; ''Phosphorylation of cyclin D1 at Thr 286 during S phase leads to its proteasomal degradation and allows efficient DNA synthesis.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Hao B, Zheng N, Schulman BA, Wu G, Miller JJ, Pagano M, Pavletich NP.; ''Structural basis of the Cks1-dependent recognition of p27(Kip1) by the SCF(Skp2) ubiquitin ligase.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Mitra J, Enders GH, Azizkhan-Clifford J, Lengel KL.; ''Dual regulation of the anaphase promoting complex in human cells by cyclin A-Cdk2 and cyclin A-Cdk1 complexes.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Viglietto G, Motti ML, Bruni P, Melillo RM, D'Alessio A, Califano D, Vinci F, Chiappetta G, Tsichlis P, Bellacosa A, Fusco A, Santoro M.; ''Cytoplasmic relocalization and inhibition of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27(Kip1) by PKB/Akt-mediated phosphorylation in breast cancer.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Vigo E, Müller H, Prosperini E, Hateboer G, Cartwright P, Moroni MC, Helin K.; ''CDC25A phosphatase is a target of E2F and is required for efficient E2F-induced S phase.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Sarshad AA, Corcoran M, Al-Muzzaini B, Borgonovo-Brandter L, Von Euler A, Lamont D, Visa N, Percipalle P.; ''Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) 3β phosphorylates and protects nuclear myosin 1c from proteasome-mediated degradation to activate rDNA transcription in early G1 cells.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Hou F, Zou H.; ''Two human orthologues of Eco1/Ctf7 acetyltransferases are both required for proper sister-chromatid cohesion.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Patel P, Asbach B, Shteyn E, Gomez C, Coltoff A, Bhuyan S, Tyner AL, Wagner R, Blain SW.; ''Brk/Protein tyrosine kinase 6 phosphorylates p27KIP1, regulating the activity of cyclin D-cyclin-dependent kinase 4.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Carrano AC, Eytan E, Hershko A, Pagano M.; ''SKP2 is required for ubiquitin-mediated degradation of the CDK inhibitor p27.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Rankin S, Ayad NG, Kirschner MW.; ''Sororin, a substrate of the anaphase-promoting complex, is required for sister chromatid cohesion in vertebrates.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
Galaktionov K, Chen X, Beach D.; ''Cdc25 cell-cycle phosphatase as a target of c-myc.''; PubMedEurope PMCScholia
In this final phase of mitosis, new membranes are formed around two sets of chromatids and two daughter cells are formed. The chromosomes and the spindle fibers disperse, and the fiber ring around the center of the cell, composed of actin, contracts, pinching the cell into two daughter cells.
The dissolution of the nuclear membrane marks the beginning of the prometaphase. Kinetochores are created when proteins attach to the centromeres. Microtubules then attach at the kinetochores, and the chromosomes begin to move to the metaphase plate.
The actual synthesis of DNA occurs in the S phase of the cell cycle. This includes the initiation of DNA replication, when the first nucleotide of the new strand is laid down during the synthesis of the primer. The DNA replication preinitiation events begin in late M or early G1 phase.
The pRB C-terminus contains a cluster of seven candidate in vivo cdk phosphorylation sites (residues 795, 807, 811, 821, and 826) and is phosphorylated in vitro by cyclin A, cyclin E, and cyclin D-associated kinases.
p27 translocates to the nucleoplasm where it associates with CyclinE:Cdk2 complexes. Localization of p27 to the nucleus is necessary to inhibit Cdk activation by Cdk-activating kinase.
The interaction between the Skp2 subunit of the SCF(Skp2) complex and p27 is dependent upon Cdk2:Cyclin A/E mediated phosphorylation of p27 at Thr 187 (Carrano et al, 1999; Tsvetkov et al, 1999). There is evidence that Cyclin A/B:Cdk1 can also bind and phosphorylate p27 on Thr 187 (Nakayama et al., 2004). This phosphorylation is also essential for the subsequent ubiquitination of p27.
The accessory protein, Cks1 promotes efficient interaction between phosphorylated p27 and the SCF (Skp2) complex (Ganoth et al., 2001; Spruck et al., 2001). Cks1 binds to Skp2 in the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain and C-terminal tail (Hao et al., 2005). The phosphorylated Thr187 side chain of p27 associates with a phosphate binding site on Cks1, and the side chain containing Glu185 is positioned in the interface between Skp2 and Cks1 where it interacts with both (Hao et al., 2005).
Recognition of p27 by SCF(Skp2) and the subsequent ubiquitination of p27 is dependent upon Cyclin E/A:Cdk2-mediated phosphorylation of p27 at Thr 187 (Montagnoli et al., 1999). p21 is also phosphorylated at a specific site (Ser130) by Cyclin E/A:Cdk2, stimulating its ubiquitination. Unlike p27, however, p21 ubiquitination can take place in the absence of phosphorylation, although with less efficiency (Bornstein et al.,2003).
During G1, the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) is controlled by the CDK inhibitors (CKIs) CDKN1A (p21) and CDKN1B (p27), thereby preventing premature entry into S phase (Guardavaccaro and Pagano, 2006).
Active Cyclin A:Cdk2 complexes phosphorylate and inactivate proteins required for maintaining the G1/S phase including. In addition to CDKN1A and CDKN1B, the active CCNA:p-T160-CDK2 complex also phosphorylates FZR1 (Cdh1) and RB1. All this creates auto-amplification loops that render Cdk2 increasingly more active. In G2, Cdk2, in association with cyclin A, phosphorylates E2F1 and E2F3 resulting in the inactivation and possibly degradation of these two transcription factors (Dynlacht et al., 1994; Krek et al., 1994).
Phosphorylation of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) by the CDK-activating kinase (CAK) is required for the activation of the CDK kinase activity. The association of p21/p27 with the Cyclin A/E:Cdk2 complex prevents CAK mediated phosphorylation of Cdk2 (Aprelikova et al., 1995).
Binding of the MYC:MAX heterodimer to MYC response elements in the first and second intron of the CDC25A gene activates CDC25A transcription in mid to late G1 (Galaktionov et al. 1996). Transcription of the CDC25A gene can be directly activated by E2F1 (DeGregori et al. 1995, Vigo et al. 1999). Transcription of the CDC25A gene is directly inhibited by the DREAM complex (Litovchick et al. 2007).
Phosphorylation of p27Kip1 at T157 and of p21Cip1 at T145 by AKT leads to their retention in the cytoplasm, segregating these cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors from cyclin-CDK complexes.
Acetyltransferases ESCO1 and ESCO2 are homologs of the S. cerevisiae acetyltransferase Eco1, essential for viability in yeast. ESCO1 and ESCO2 share sequence homology in the C-terminal region, consisting of a H2C2 zinc finger motif and an acetyltransferase domain (Hou and Zou 2005). Both ESCO1 and ESCO2 acetylate the cohesin subunit SMC3 on two lysine residues, K105 and K106 (Zhang et al. 2008), an important step in the establishment of sister-chromatid cohesion during the S-phase of the cell cycle. These dual acetylations on SMC3 are deacetylated by HDAC8 after the cohesin removal from chromatin for the dissociation and recycling of cohesin subunits (Deardorff et al. 2012). ESCO1 and ESCO2 differ in their N-termini, which are necessary for chromatin binding, and may perform distinct functions in sister chromatid cohesion (Hou and Zou 2005), as suggested by the study of Esco2 knockout mice (Whelan et al. 2012).
CDCA5 (Sororin) is essential for the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion in mammalian cells (Rankin et al. 2005) in the S-phase of the cell cycle (Nishiyama et al. 2010). Several factors contribute to the recruitment of CDCA5 to chromatin-associated cohesin: DNA replication (i.e. presence of two sister chromatids), association of cohesin complex with PDS5, and acetylation of the SMC3 cohesin subunit by ESCO1/ESCO2 acetyltransferases. Experiments in which a recombinant tagged mouse CDCA5 was expressed in human HeLa cell line showed that CDCA5 starts to accumulate on chromatin in S-phase and dissociates from chromosomal arms in prophase (Nishiyama et al. 2010).
CDCA5 is essential for the establishment of chromosomal cohesion only in the presence of WAPAL, suggesting that the key role of CDCA5 (Sororin) is to antagonize WAPAL. Both CDCA5 and WAPAL contain an FGF (phenylalanine-glycine-phenylalanine) motif that is essential for PDS5 binding and is also essential for CDCA5 function in cohesion establishment. Indeed, CDCA5 is able to displace WAPAL from PDS5:WAPAL heterodimers in vitro. In vivo experiments in Xenopus egg extracts suggest that CDCA5 rearranges the topology of cohesin associated proteins so that WAPAL is no longer able to inhibit sister chromatid cohesion but remains associated with cohesin (Nishiyama et al. 2010).
CDCA5 (Sororin) is essential for the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion at centromeres. Experiments in which a recombinant tagged mouse CDCA5 was expressed in human HeLa cell line showed that CDCA5 starts to accumulate on chromatin in S-phase and dissociates from centromeres in anaphase (Nishiyama et al. 2010).
Acetyltransferases ESCO1 and ESCO2 are homologs of the S. cerevisiae acetyltransferase Eco1, essential for viability in yeast. ESCO1 and ESCO2 share sequence homology in the C-terminal region, consisting of a H2C2 zinc finger motif and an acetyltransferase domain (Hou and Zou 2005). Both ESCO1 and ESCO2 acetylate the cohesin subunit SMC3 on two lysine residues, K105 and K106 (Zhang et al. 2008), an important step in the establishment of sister-chromatid cohesion during the S-phase of the cell cycle. Divergent N-termini of ESCO1 and ESCO2, necessary for chromatin binding, suggest that ESCO1 and ESCO2 may perform distinct functions in sister chromatid cohesion (Hou and Zou 2005). Several studies suggest that ESCO2 may be predominantly involved in acetylation of the SMC3 subunit of centromeric cohesin. A conditional targeting of Esco2 locus in mice leads to pre-implantational loss of homozygous Esco2 -/- embryos at the eight-cell stage. Prometaphase chromosomes isolated from two-cell stage Esco2 knockout embryos show marked cohesion defect at centromeres (Whelan et al. 2012). ESCO2 protein appears in the S-phase (Hou and Zou 2005, Whelan et al. 2012) and in mouse embryonic fibroblasts Esco2 predominantly localizes to pericentric heterochromatin (Whelan et al. 2012). Mutations in the ESCO2 gene (Vega et al. 2005) that impair ESCO2 acetyltransferase activity (Gordillo et al. 2008) are the cause of the Roberts syndrome, an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by craniofacial and limb abnormalities, and intellectual disability. Metaphase chromosomes of Roberts syndrome patients exhibit loss of cohesion at heterochromatic regions of centromeres and the Y chromosome, with a characteristic 'railroad track appearance' (Van den Berg and Francke 1993, Vega et al. 2005).
At the beginning of this reaction, 1 molecule of 'Cyclin D1:Cdk4', and 1 molecule of 'ATP' are present. At the end of this reaction, 1 molecule of 'phospho(T286)-Cyclin D1:Cdk4', and 1 molecule of 'ADP' are present.
This reaction takes place in the 'nucleus' and is mediated by the 'kinase activity' of 'glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta'.
Activated PTK6 (BRK) binds to CDKN1B (p27KIP1) that is in a complex with CDK4 and cyclin D1 (CCND1). Since PTK6 increases cyclin E1 (CCNE1) levels downstream of ERBB2 while decreasing CDKN1B levels, PTK6 probably also associates with CDKN1B bound to the complex of CCNE1 and CDK2 (Xiang et al. 2008).
PTK6 (BRK) phosphorylates CDKN1B (p27KIP1) bound to the complex of CDK4 and CCND1 (cyclin D1) on tyrosine residue Y88 and possibly other tyrosines (e.g. Y89) (Patel et al. 2015). Based on the finding that PTK6 promotes ERBB2-induced increase in cyclin E1 (CCNE1) levels and decrease in CDKN1B levels (Xiang et al. 2008), and supported by the analogy with other SRC family kinases that phosphorylate CDKN1B (Grimmler et al. 2007), PTK6 is likely to also phosphorylate CDKN1B bound to the complex of CCNE1 and CDK2. Phosphorylation of CDKN1B (p27KIP1) on tyrosine residue Y88 by SRC family kinases dislodges the 3-10 helix of CDKN1B from the active site of CDK2 or CDK4, thus converting CDKN1B from a bound inhibitor to a bound non-inhibitor (Grimmler et al. 2007, Ray et al. 2009).
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DataNodes
A:Cdk2:p21/p27
complexA:phospho-Cdk2(Tyr
15)Chromosomal
Arms:Ac-Cohesin:PDS5:CDCA5:WAPALphospho-(T286)
Cyclin D1Annotated Interactions
A:Cdk2:p21/p27
complexA:Cdk2:p21/p27
complexA:Cdk2:p21/p27
complexA:phospho-Cdk2(Tyr
15)A:phospho-Cdk2(Tyr
15)Transcription of the CDC25A gene can be directly activated by E2F1 (DeGregori et al. 1995, Vigo et al. 1999).
Transcription of the CDC25A gene is directly inhibited by the DREAM complex (Litovchick et al. 2007).
CDCA5 is essential for the establishment of chromosomal cohesion only in the presence of WAPAL, suggesting that the key role of CDCA5 (Sororin) is to antagonize WAPAL. Both CDCA5 and WAPAL contain an FGF (phenylalanine-glycine-phenylalanine) motif that is essential for PDS5 binding and is also essential for CDCA5 function in cohesion establishment. Indeed, CDCA5 is able to displace WAPAL from PDS5:WAPAL heterodimers in vitro. In vivo experiments in Xenopus egg extracts suggest that CDCA5 rearranges the topology of cohesin associated proteins so that WAPAL is no longer able to inhibit sister chromatid cohesion but remains associated with cohesin (Nishiyama et al. 2010).
This reaction takes place in the 'nucleus' and is mediated by the 'kinase activity' of 'glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta'.
This reaction takes place in the 'nuclear envelope' (Dhiel et al.1994).
This reaction takes place in the 'nuclear envelope' (Diehl et al. 1997).
Chromosomal
Arms:Ac-Cohesin:PDS5:CDCA5:WAPALphospho-(T286)
Cyclin D1phospho-(T286)
Cyclin D1