Cardiac conduction (Homo sapiens)
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Description
The normal sequence of contraction of atria and ventricles of the heart require activation of groups of cardiac cells. The mechanism must elicit rapid changes in heart rate and respond to changes in autonomic tone. The cardiac action potential controls these functions. Action potentials are generated by the movement of ions through transmembrane ion channels in cardiac cells. Like skeletal myocytes (and axons), in the resting state, a given cardiac myocyte has a negative membrane potential. In both muscle types, after a delay (the absolute refractory period), K+ channels reopen and the resulting flow of K+ out of the cell causes repolarisation. The voltage-gated Ca2+ channels on the cardiac sarcolemma membrane are generally triggered by an influx of Na+ during phase 0 of the action potential. Cardiac muscle cells are so tightly bound that when one of these cells is excited the action potential spreads to all of them. The standard model used to understand the cardiac action potential is the action potential of the ventricular myocyte (Park & Fishman 2011, Grant 2009).
The action potential has 5 phases (numbered 0-4). Phase 4 describes the membrane potential when a cell is not being stimulated. The normal resting potential in the ventricular myocardium is between -85 to -95 mV. The K+ gradient across the cell membrane is the key determinant in the normal resting potential. Phase 0 is the rapid depolarisation phase in which electrical stimulation of a cell opens the closed, fast Na+ channels, causing a large influx of Na+ creating a Na+ current (INa+). This causes depolarisation of the cell. The slope of phase 0 represents the maximum rate of potential change and differs in contractile and pacemaker cells. Phase 1 is the inactivation of the fast Na+ channels. The transient net outward current causing the small downward deflection (the "notch" of the action potetial) is due to the movement of K+ and Cl- ions. In pacemaker cells, this phase is due to rapid K+ efflux and closure of L-type Ca2+ channels. Phase 2 is the plateau phase which is sustained by a balance of Ca2+ influx and K+ efflux. This phase sustains muscle contraction. Phase 3 of the action potential is where a concerted action of two outward delayed currents brings about repolarisation back down to the resting potential (Bartos et al. 2015). View original pathway at Reactome.
The action potential has 5 phases (numbered 0-4). Phase 4 describes the membrane potential when a cell is not being stimulated. The normal resting potential in the ventricular myocardium is between -85 to -95 mV. The K+ gradient across the cell membrane is the key determinant in the normal resting potential. Phase 0 is the rapid depolarisation phase in which electrical stimulation of a cell opens the closed, fast Na+ channels, causing a large influx of Na+ creating a Na+ current (INa+). This causes depolarisation of the cell. The slope of phase 0 represents the maximum rate of potential change and differs in contractile and pacemaker cells. Phase 1 is the inactivation of the fast Na+ channels. The transient net outward current causing the small downward deflection (the "notch" of the action potetial) is due to the movement of K+ and Cl- ions. In pacemaker cells, this phase is due to rapid K+ efflux and closure of L-type Ca2+ channels. Phase 2 is the plateau phase which is sustained by a balance of Ca2+ influx and K+ efflux. This phase sustains muscle contraction. Phase 3 of the action potential is where a concerted action of two outward delayed currents brings about repolarisation back down to the resting potential (Bartos et al. 2015). View original pathway at Reactome.
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tetramer:FKBP1B tetramer:CASQ
polymer:TRDN:junctinAnnotated Interactions
When the membrane potential is positive to the channel's resting potential (such as in Phase 3 of the action potential), these channels pass very little charge out of the cell. This may be due to the channel's pores being blocked by internal Mg2+ and endogenous polyamines such as spermine (Shin & Lu 2005).
Inwardly rectifying (Kir) channels contribute to potassium leak, stabilizing cells near the equilibrium reversal potential of potassium (EK). Kir channels pass small outward currents because of pore blockade by internal magnesium and polyamines; at potentials negative to EK, large inward currents are passed upon relief from blockade.
Functionally the IP3 receptor is believed to be tetrameric, with results indicating that the tetramer is composed of 2 pairs of protein isoforms.
A member of the intracellular Cl- channel protein family, CLIC2, has also been determined to inhibit RYR-mediated Ca2+ transport (Board et al. 2004), potentially playing a role in the homeostasis of Ca2+ release from intracellular stores. Inhibition is thought to be via reducing activation of the channels by their primary endogenous cytoplasmic ligands, ATP and Ca2+ (Dulhunty et al. 2005). Protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylation of RYR2 dissociates FKBP1B and results in defective channel function (Marx et al. 2000). The penta-EF hand protein sorcin (SRI) can modulate Ca2+-induced calcium-release in the heart via the interaction with several Ca2+ channels such as RYRs. A natural ligand, F112L, impairs this modulating activity (Franceschini et al. 2008). Calmodulin (CALM1) is considered a gatekeeper of RYR2. CALM1 acts directly by binding to RYR2 at residues 3583–3603, inhibiting RYR2 both at physiological and higher, pathological Ca2+ concentrations (Smith et al. 1989, Ono et al. 2010).
In Rabbits, sorcin (SRI) activates SLC8A1, via the interaction of the respective Ca2+-binding domains (Zamparelli et al. 2010). Calmodulin (CALM1) binds to the cytoplasmic loop of NCX1 to negatively regulate exchange activity (Chou et al. 2015).
SCNAs interact with cytosolic proteins that regulate channel trafficking and/or modulate the biophysical properties of the channels. Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are potent regulators of voltage-gated Na+ channels in adult ventricular myocytes and suggest that loss-of-function mutations in FGFs may underlie a similar set of cardiac arrhythmias and cardiomyopathies that result from SCN5A (aka Nav1.5) loss-of-function mutations. Ran guanine nucleotide release factor (RANGRF aka MOG1) is a critical regulator of sodium channel function in the heart and is thought to regulate the cell surface localization of SCN5A (Marfatia et al. 2001, Wu et al. 2008). Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type II subunit delta (CAMK2D), as part of a heteromeric complex with CAMK2A, CAMK2B and CAMK2G can be activated by calmodulin/Ca2+ (CALM:4xCa2+) to then phosphorylate SNC5A at multiple sites, inactivating it (Ashpole et al. 2012).
Four human genes encode the catalytic alpha subunits, ATP1A1-4 (Kawakami et al, 1986; Shull et al, 1989; Ovchinnikov et al, 1988; Keryanov and Gardner, 2002). Defects in ATP1A2 cause alternating hemiplegia of childhood (AHC) (Swoboda et al, 2004). Another defect in ATP1A2 causes familial hemiplegic migraine type 2 (FHM2) (Vanmolkot et al, 2003). Defects in ATP1A3 are the cause of dystonia type 12 (DYT12) (de Carvalho Aguiar et al, 2004).
Three human genes encode the non-catalytic beta subunits, ATP1B1-3. The beta subunits are thought to mediate the number of sodium pumps transported to the plasma membrane (Lane et al, 1989; Ruiz et al, 1996; Malik et al, 1996). FXYD proteins belong to a family of small membrane proteins that are auxiliary gamma subunits of Na-K-ATPase. At least six members of this family, FYD1-4, 6 and 7, have been shown to regulate Na-K-ATPase activity (Geering 2006, Choudhury et al. 2007). Defects in FXYD2 are the cause of hypomagnesemia type 2 (HOMG2) (Meij et al, 2000). ATP1A1-4 and ATP1B1-4 play a minor role during phase 2, since they begin to restore ion concentrations. The high concentration of intracellular calcium starts contraction of those cells, which is sustained in the plateau phase.
HIV-1 Tat is essential for HIV-1 replication. Tat must escape from the cell in order for it to activate the HIV-1 LTR promoter and facilitate HIV-1 viral replication. Tat utilises the cellular ATP1A1 pump for secretion out of cells. The cardiac glycosides ouabain, digoxin, digitoxin, acetyldigitoxin and deslanoside can all inhibit ATP1A1 (Smith 1984), impairing extracellular Tat release and blocking HIV-1 replication (Agostini et al. 2017).
tetramer:FKBP1B tetramer:CASQ
polymer:TRDN:junctin